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LESSON 1: MASTER SCENE HEADINGS

Master scene headings describe the location and time of day for each scene.

They are formatted in all UPPERCASE LETTERS.

INTERIOR scenes are written as INT.

EXTERIOR scenes are written as EXT.

This is followed by the LOCATION – TIME OF DAY (remember the hyphen!)

Correct Example 1:

for a house interior scene during the day.

Correct Example 2:

for a park exterior scene during the night.

Incorrect Example:

Notice how the correct version uses specific formatting. It’s short, clear, and follows the INT./EXT. rule.

Let’s look at a real-world example from the Inception screenplay (2010):

As you can see, Nolan uses multiple scene headings to quickly transport us to multiple locations (scenes).

He uses "CONTINUOUS" to indicate we're cutting back to a place we've visited before and "CUT TO:" to emphasize a direct transition from one shot to another. We'll explore various types of transitions later in this course.

LESSON 2: SECONDARY SCENE HEADINGS

Secondary scene headings describe the location and time of day for each scene.

Where master scene headings offer the core location of any scene (e.g., CASTLE, PLANE, POLICE STATION), the secondary scene heading describes locations that characters may move to within those locations (e.g., DUNGEON, COCKPIT, PRISON CELL).

You write a secondary scene heading when the character is still within a master location (described in the master scene heading) but has moved into a particular room/place within that master location.

Correct Example:

for an interior scene during the day where a character has moved into the castle kitchen.

Again, less is more, so don't include unnecessary stuff like BACK RIGHT CORNER - NEAR THE STOVE - KITCHEN - DAY.

Here's a real-world example - again from Inception:

As you can see, Nolan uses secondary scene headings to transport us to multiple locations within the Japanese Castle.

LESSON 3: SLUGLINES

Sluglines are moments within a scene where you use CAPS to identify the information you want to call attention to.

Sluglines are NOT the same as scene headings (although you often find the words used interchangeably).

Example:

"RUSTLING FROM THE DENSE TREELINE" is the slugline

LESSON 4: ACTION LINES

Action lines describe what’s happening on screen. They should be clear and visual, avoiding unnecessary detail or overly complex sentences. Action is always written in the present tense.

Correct Example:

Incorrect Example:

Here's an example from The Social Network screenplay (2010, Sony) - everything highlighted in yellow is action lines:

Although Aaron Sorkin often uses action lines, the description is still tight and visual. You can see it play out on screen without explanation, and there's no fluff.

LESSON 5: DIALOGUE

Dialogue formatting consists of three things, and are written in that order:

1. the character name
2. parentheticals (if needed—we'll discuss them in the next lesson),
3. and the spoken line.

The character’s name is in all caps (fx JANE), and the dialogue is indented.

Correct Example:

Incorrect Example:

And here's an example from The Godfather (1972, Paramount) screenplay:

It’s simple, direct, and tells us everything we need to know about the character’s intent. It also carries a lot of subtext, which we'll get back to in a later section.

Notice how Mario Puzo and Francis Ford Coppola use (then) to emphasize a small break. Today, most screenwriters use (beat) instead to achieve the same.

Common Dialogue Mistakes

On-the-Nose Dialogue:

• • Avoid: "I’m scared because you might leave me.” 
  • Better: "What if you’re not here tomorrow?” 

Excessive Parentheticals:

• • Avoid: "“(smiling nervously, then laughing awkwardly, then sighing)” 
  • Better: “(nervous)”

Long Speeches:

• • Break up monologues to maintain pacing and keep readers engaged (unless the monologue is significant!).

LESSON 6: PARENTHETICALS

Parentheticals, also known as wrylies, are used sparingly to show how a line is delivered. They’re not for describing action but for clarifying delivery and providing additional direction for a line of dialogue. They often describe a character's emotion, gestures, or delivery style.

Parentheticals should always be short and descriptive and only used when necessary.

Parentheticals are...

• written in lowercase letters inside ()
• used between a character’s name and their dialogue to inform that dialogue
• used between sections of a character’s dialogue to indicate a change in tone or action
• used after an action line to show that their dialogue continues
• never centered under the character name.

Correct Example 1:

Correct Example 2:

Incorrect Example:

Here’s an example from the When Harry Met Sally (1989, Castle Rock) screenplay:

The (V.O) after SALLY's first dialogue stands for Voice Over and is a Character Extension - we'll get back to these in a sec. It's not a voice-over as you'd expect from a commentator in, for example, a documentary, but to indicate that it's diegetic off-screen dialogue.

If you want to format parentheticals manually in a text editor, here's the nitty-gritty: Parentheticals are left indented at 3.0", and the right margin is often 3.5".

LESSON 7: CHARACTER EXTENSIONS AND TECHNICAL MARKERS

A character extension is a small label in ALL CAPS next to a character’s name that tells the reader how the dialogue is delivered.

It clarifies whether the character is off-screen, speaking in voiceover, or talking through a device.

Common character extensions include:

• (V.O.) – Voice Over
  Used when a character is speaking, but they aren’t physically in the scene. This is for narration, inner thoughts, letters being read aloud, or pre-recorded messages.
  This includes:
  • Narration (The Shawshank Redemption, Goodfellas)
  • Letters/diary entries/emails being read out loud
  • Internal thoughts (Taxi Driver)
  • TV/Radio/Intercom voices

   

• (O.S.) – Off-Screen
  Used when a character is in the scene but not visible at the moment. This is for dialogue coming from another room or behind a door, where the character is still present in the environment.
• (O.C.) – Off-Camera
  Similar to (O.S.), but primarily used in TV scripts instead of film. It means the character is present but not in the current shot.
• (FILTER) – Through a Device
  Used when dialogue is coming through a phone, radio, speaker, or intercom. It signals that the character is speaking via technology rather than in person.
• (CONT’D) – Continued Dialogue
  This appears automatically in most screenwriting software when a character speaks twice in a row, separated by an action or scene description. It prevents the character’s name from being repeated unnecessarily.

Example:

What’s a Technical Marker?

A technical marker is all about formatting. It helps keep the script clean and easy to follow, especially when dialogue or a scene spills over onto the next page.

These aren’t for performance; they’re just there to make sure the script flows properly.

Examples of Technical Markers:

• (MORE) → Appears at the bottom of a page when a character’s dialogue continues on the next page.
• (CONTINUED) → Appears at the top of the next page to signal that the dialogue or scene is still going. Not common in modern screenplays.
• (CONT’D) → When auto-generated by software, it indicates that a character’s dialogue continues after a page break.

Notice that (CONT'D) can be either a character extension or a technical (pagination) marker (depending on its use).

When (CONT’D) is a Character Extension:

When a character performs an action or pause between lines of dialogue but continues speaking, (CONT’D) is placed next to their name to indicate the same speaker is still talking. In this case, it functions as a character extension rather than a technical formatting marker.

Example:

When (CONT’D) is a Technical Marker: When a character’s dialogue is split across pages, screenwriting software automatically adds (MORE) at the bottom and (CONT’D) at the top of the next page. This is purely for formatting purposes and does not affect how the dialogue is delivered.

Example:

Standard Formatting:

After an Action Line: CONT’D should follow the speaker’s name (be on the same line). It can be in all caps or lower case (cont'd) - but you need to pick one option and be consistent throughout your screenplay!

After a page break: The pagination marker (MORE) should come at the bottom of the first block, centered under the dialogue. The dialogue pickup atop the next page, with (CONT’D) in line with the speaker’s name.

How NOT to Use Extensions

As always, when it comes to writing screenplay shorthand, less is more.

• Don’t overuse (V.O.) in dialogue-heavy scripts unless narration is a major storytelling device.
• (O.S.) and (O.C.) are not the same as (V.O.)—a character in (O.S.) is still in the scene, just not visible.
• Don't add extensions unnecessarily—if a character is already established as being on the phone, you don’t need (FILTER) every time they speak.

The Difference Between Character Extensions, Technical Markers, and Parentheticals Summed Up

Many beginners get these three mixed up, and it's easy to understand why. Here's a table that summarizes the differences:

Summing Up

That was quite a lesson. Here are the take aways:

• Character extensions (V.O., O.S., FILTER) indicate delivery style.
• Technical markers are just formatting tools to handle page and scene breaks.
• (MORE) and (CONTINUED) are technical formatting markers, not creative elements. The latter is not common today.
• You never type (MORE) or (CONTINUED)—your software does it for you.
• (CON'T) can be both a character extension and a technical pagination marker
• Parentheticals guide how a line is spoken.
• Use extensions when needed, but don’t overdo them or clutter your script.

LESSON 8: TRANSITIONS

A transition in a screenplay tells you how one scene moves to the next. It controls pacing, vibe, and how the story flows visually. Common types include:

1. FADE IN – Used at the very beginning of a script to indicate the start of a scene.
2. FADE OUT – Typically used at the end of a script to indicate the story is concluding.
3. CUT TO: – A direct transition from one shot to another. This is often implied and not necessary unless the shift needs to be emphasized.
4. DISSOLVE TO: – A slow blending from one scene into another, usually indicating a passage of time or a dream-like quality.
5. MATCH CUT TO: – A cut where two similar images or movements are linked for stylistic or thematic purposes.
6. JUMP CUT TO: – A quick, jarring cut that jumps forward in time, often used to show disjointedness or urgency.
7. SMASH CUT TO: – An abrupt cut from one intense scene to another, often for dramatic effect.
8. WIPE TO: – A transition where one scene pushes another off the screen, often associated with older films or used for stylistic effect.
9. MONTAGE – A sequence of quick cuts used to show a progression of events or the passage of time.
10. INTERCUT – Used when cutting back and forth between two scenes happening simultaneously.
11. SUPERIMPOSE: Used to indicate text appearing over a scene (e.g., "Los Angeles, 2024" or "Based on a True Story").
12. OVER BLACK: A scene transition where dialogue or sound plays over a black screen before the next visual appears.
13. FLASH CUT TO: A very brief, sometimes single-frame insert that disrupts the scene, often used for sudden memories or visions.
14. IRIS IN / IRIS OUT: A classic old-Hollywood transition where the scene opens or closes with a shrinking or expanding circle.
15. TO BLACK / TO WHITE: Used instead of FADE OUT to indicate a sudden fade to a black or white screen, often for dramatic effect.
16. TIME CUT TO: A transition used to show a jump forward in time without requiring a full scene heading.
17. CONTINUOUS: Not exactly a transition, but used in scene headings to indicate the action moves directly from one location to another without a break.
18. SPLIT SCREEN: Indicates that two separate images appear on screen simultaneously.

Most modern screenplays avoid excessive transitions like FADE IN and CUT TO unless absolutely necessary. These are generally left to the director. However, when used, they should be formatted correctly.

Correct Example:

Incorrect Example:

Notice there's a difference between CONTINUOUS and CONT'D.

• CONTINUOUS is used in scene headings to show seamless movement.
• (CONT’D) is used in dialogue to show the same character continuing to speak after a break.

...so be careful not to get these two mixed up.

If you're formatting transitions manually in a regular text editor like Word or Google Docs, follow these guidelines:

• Alignment: Right-aligned.
• Font: Courier New, 12-point.
• Spacing: Single-spaced.
• Capitalization: Always in ALL CAPS.
• Extra Line Breaks: One line above and below to separate from action and dialogue.

LESSON 9: WRITING SCENES

Now, we’re going to focus on scenes. Scenes are where your story comes to life, moment by moment. Each scene must drive your story forward while revealing your characters dynamically.

A scene is the second smallest dramatic unit in a screenplay (the smallest being the story beat).
 
It combines three core elements: camera placement (interior or exterior), location, and time. Whenever one of these changes, you have a new scene. But a scene is more than its technical parts—it’s a mini-story with its own beginning, middle, and end."
 

Key Elements of a Scene:

• Purpose: Moves the story forward in terms of plot or character. 
• Conflict: Contains some form of conflict, even subtle.
• Emotion: Triggers a specific emotional response.

Examples of Scene Writing

 
Here's an example from the A Few Good Men (1992, Columbia) screenplay:

Aaron Sorkin uses this scene in A Few Good Men to underscore guilt, personal failure, and the burden of moral responsibility. Colonel Markinson’s suicide reinforces the idea that the Marine Corps culture of obedience led to a tragedy.

 
Instead of standing up to Colonel Jessup, Markinson allowed a wrongful system to take precedence over morality.
 
This moment contrasts Jessup’s unwavering belief in his righteousness, as Markinson’s death is a silent rebuke to that rigid, authoritarian mindset. It also foreshadows the breakdown of the defense’s case. 
 
Markinson was Kaffee’s best potential witness against Jessup. His suicide removes the easiest path to proving the truth in court, forcing Kaffee to take a bigger risk—putting Jessup on the stand.
 

How to Write Dynamic Scenes

 
Every scene should have a clear intention and engage the audience. Let’s explore the mechanics of a successful scene.

1. Get to the point: 
   • Avoid unnecessary setup. Jump into the action or dialogue. 
   • Example: Instead of showing a character entering a room, start mid-conversation or conflict. 
2. End on a Punch: 
   • A great scene ends with a dramatic moment, a revelation, or a cliffhanger. 

 
Here's an excerpt from the opening scene of The Dark Knight (2008, Warner Bros.) screenplay, which does just that:

Nolans' writing quickly establishes location (Gotham + a bank), time (day), stakes (a robbery), and the one pulling the strings (The Joker). Conflict and tension are introduced immediately.

Scenes are the building blocks of your screenplay. Mastering them is critical to crafting a compelling story. Remember: every scene needs a reason to exist.
 
Ask yourself, ‘Why does my story need this scene?’ and ‘What will the audience take away from it?’

LESSON 11: WRITING MONTAGES

In lesson 4, we'll focus on writing montages. A montage is a sequence of brief scenes that show time's passage or events' progression. Montages are a great way to condense information while keeping the story dynamic.

There isn't a single correct way to write montages. Some prefer to show when they start and end with "MONTAGE". Some break them up with a bit of dialogue. Some write very little information, whereas others write more specific details.

Likewise, there isn't a single correct way to format montages, although you'll never go wrong with:

Here's an example from Armageddon (1998) screenplay, showing the launch of the spaceships Independence and Freedom:

And here's an example from the Rocky (1976, United Artists) screenplay:

We see Rocky’s growth and determination in just a few impactful moments. Notice that Sylvester Stallone didn't use the word "montage," but it's still self-evident what it is. He also broke up the montage with a bit of dialogue (although this wasn't there in some of the first drafts).

LESSON 10: WRITING A SERIES OF SHOTS

A series of shots is similar to a montage but focuses on sequential actions leading to a single outcome. It’s great for building tension or delivering a dramatic resolution.

As is the case when writing montages, there's no way to format it. It depends on the context.

That said, there are a few rules of thumb that can help you along:

Tips for Effective Scene Headings and Visual Sequences

1. Be Specific:
   • Avoid generic descriptions like SOMEWHERE OUTSIDE. Specificity anchors the audience in your story. 
2. Keep It Visual:
   • Focus on what the audience will see on screen. 
3. Use Action Verbs:
   • Describe movement and energy. Example: "He sprints" is better than "He goes quickly." 
4. Pace Your Sequences:
   • Ensure each shot or moment flows naturally to the next. 

Examples

Let's start with Rocky again. We're in the final fight between Rocky and Apollo Creed. We've seen the first few rounds, and Rocky is already hurting badly. Sylvester Stallone starts a series of shots where we progress fast through the fight while focusing on the spectators' reactions:

... and then the script continues with the final rounds of the fight.

LESSON 12: WRITING SUBTEXT IN DIALOGUE

Dialogue is more than just characters talking; it’s about what they’re not saying. Subtext—the unspoken meaning behind the words—is where your screenplay comes to life. It’s what characters truly feel or want but aren’t explicitly stating. Think of it as the iceberg beneath the surface: the dialogue is what we see, and the subtext is what lies underneath.

It must be said that subtext doesn't have to stem from the dialogue. It can also be written into a scene in other ways - from how the characters interact, the setting itself, the colors used, symbolism, imagery, and more. Subtext can have many faces. Read more on how you can create subtext in your film.

Key Elements of Subtext

Dialogue should hint at what characters want without outright stating it. This means avoiding on-the-nose dialogue: 

Don't write: "I'm scared." Instead, try something like:

• "My hands won’t stop shaking." (physical reaction instead of stating fear)
• "Tell me it’s gonna be okay." (seeking reassurance subtly implies fear)
• "This... this doesn’t feel right." (hesitation and doubt create tension without directly saying 'I'm scared')

Don't write: "I'm really tired." Instead, try something like:

• "If I close my eyes for five seconds, I might not open them again." (adds exhaustion and slight humor)
• "I think my bones just sighed." (personification makes it more vivid and interesting)
• "Wake me up when the world stops spinning." (expresses exhaustion creatively)

Don't write: "I love you." Instead, try something like:

• "You make everything else feel... smaller." (expresses love through impact rather than just words)
• "There’s nowhere else I’d rather be." (suggests deep affection without saying it outright)
• "I don’t know when it happened, but it did. And now I can’t imagine anything else." (makes it feel discovered rather than stated)

Don't write: "I'm nervous about this job interview." Instead, try something like:

• "I feel like I swallowed a handful of bees." (uses a metaphor that evokes nervousness)
• "I rehearsed this a hundred times, but now my brain is blank." (shows preparation clashing with nerves)
• "What if they see right through me?" (implies insecurity without outright stating nervousness)

Don't write: "I'm jealous." Instead, try something like:

• "Must be nice to have everything fall into place like that." (sarcastic and indirect)
• "I’d be happy for you if I wasn’t so busy being pissed." (acknowledges the mixed emotions subtly)
• "Guess I should start taking notes, huh?" (adds humor to mask jealousy)

Don't write: "I'm sorry for hurting you." Instead, try something like:

• "I don’t expect you to forgive me, but I need you to know I hate that I did that." (expresses guilt and takes responsibility)
• "If I could take it back, I would. A hundred times over." (shows remorse without the generic 'I'm sorry')
• "I know words aren’t enough, but if they were, I’d say all the right ones." (acknowledges the limits of an apology)

Don't write: "I miss you." Instead, try something like:

• "I still set out two coffee cups in the morning." (subtle and visual way to show longing)
• "I keep reaching for my phone, but there’s nothing to say." (implies missing someone without saying it directly)
• "The silence is louder without you in it." (gives the absence a tangible weight)

Don't write: "I hate you." Instead, try something like:

• "I’d rather be anywhere but here, with anyone but you." (emphasizes distance and rejection)
• "Every second in this room makes my skin crawl." (focuses on a visceral reaction rather than the words themselves)
• "If looks could kill, you’d be a smudge on the floor right now." (adds personality and wit to the hate)

Conflict Between Words and Actions

Characters may say one thing but act in a way that suggests something else. For example, a character might be smiling while delivering a veiled insult. 

Context-Driven Meaning

Subtext relies on the situation. What’s happening around the characters influences what they truly mean.

Examples of Subtext in Dialogue

I've already touched briefly upon the subtext in the famous line from The Godfather (1972), "I'm gonna make him an offer he can't refuse."

On the surface, this line sounds like a generous deal—as if Don Corleone is making a business proposal so good that the other party has no reason to turn it down. But the real meaning is far darker.

In Mafia culture, "an offer you can't refuse" isn’t a choice—it's a threat. The subtext is that refusal will come with severe consequences, likely violence or death. This is reinforced later when we see exactly what happens when the offer isn’t accepted (e.g., the infamous severed horse head scene).

By phrasing it as an "offer" rather than a threat, Don Corleone masks brutality behind civility, showing how power is wielded subtly in his world. It's a perfect example of subtext through euphemism—saying one thing but meaning something far more menacing.

Now, look at this example from the award-winning screenplay from Parasite (2019):

This scene in Parasite is all about classism hiding under casual conversation. Dong-Ik doesn’t outright insult Ki-Tek, but his comments about "that smell" say everything. He tries to make it sound harmless, even joking about it, but what he’s really saying is that poverty has a scent, something unavoidable and beneath him.

How he describes it—like "an old radish pickle" or "a dirty rag"—turns Ki-Tek’s existence into something gross and intrusive. And the worst part? He doesn’t even realize how humiliating it is. He likes Ki-Tek as a driver, but the second that smell crosses his personal space, it's a problem. That’s the whole power dynamic in this movie: as long as poor people stay in their lane, rich people tolerate them. But the moment they inconvenience the upper class, even just by existing in the wrong way, they’re seen as less than human.

Meanwhile, Ki-Tek is literally trapped under the table, hearing this all unfold. He stays silent, but you can feel his anger building. This moment isn’t just embarrassing—it’s a gut punch. The guy works hard and does everything right, and still, he’s reduced to "that subway smell" that Dong-Ik casually dismisses. And Yon-Kyo? Her "I haven’t ridden the subway in forever" line is the cherry on top. She’s so far removed from working-class life that she can’t even imagine what it’s like.

The genius of this scene is that no one outright says "poor people are disgusting", but that’s the message. It’s a perfect example of subtext doing the heavy lifting—class tension disguised as small talk, a joke with sharp edges. And you just know this moment is going to explode later.

Summing Up

Subtext turns good dialogue into great dialogue. It adds depth, intrigue, and realism to your characters’ conversations. Remember, the best dialogue often lies in what isn’t said.

LESSON 13: BUILDING EMOTION AND MOMENTUM THROUGH SCENE STRUCTURE

Now that you’ve explored dialogue and subtext, it’s time to dive into scene structure. A well-structured scene is the foundation of great storytelling. Every scene should have its own arc, contribute to the story’s overall progression, and leave the audience eager for more.

The Purpose of a Scene

Every scene must do at least one of the following:

1. Advance the plot. 
2. Develop character. 
3. Build tension or release it. 

Great scenes often achieve more than one of these goals, which adds layers of complexity to the story.

The Three-Act Structure Within a Scene

The three-act structure isn't just something you apply to a whole movie or play - it can work on lower levels, too - down to a monologue or a single piece of dialogue.

Practice Tip: Analyze some of these one-minute monologues that actors often use for auditions, and see if you can spot the beginning, the middle, and the end.

Here, we're looking at the three-act structure at the scene level.

Think of each scene as a mini-story with a beginning, middle, and end.

The Social Network Scene 1 Three-Act Example

Let's start by analyzing the beginning, middle, and end of The Social Network (2010) screenplay and see how it unfolds:

Beginning: Establish the setting, characters, and purpose.

This opening scene from The Social Network (2010) does a lot in just a few lines. It immediately sets up the setting, the characters, and the power dynamic, all while giving us a glimpse into the movie’s central theme—ambition and social standing.

The setting is simple: a college bar at night, but it’s not a wild party scene. Instead, it’s a quiet, intimate space where two people are having a conversation that’s about to turn into an argument.

The "stark and simple" description reinforces that this isn’t about visuals; it’s about dialogue and subtext. The black screen before the FADE IN also gives the scene a detached, almost clinical feel—like we’re eavesdropping on something important before we even see it.

Then there’s Mark Zuckerberg. He’s introduced as "sweet-looking," but right away, that’s undercut by the "complicated and dangerous anger" hiding underneath.

That one sentence tells us everything: he’s not physically threatening, but there’s something off about him. The way he speaks—fast, confident, and borderline condescending—shows he’s obsessed with intelligence, competition, and proving himself.

He wants Erica (and, by extension, the audience) to know that he’s not just smart, he’s smarter than everyone. The genius IQ stat isn’t just trivia; it’s a flex, a way of saying, I belong at the top, and you should recognize that.

Erica, on the other hand, is already checking out emotionally. The script says she’s "already knows she’d rather not be there", and you can feel it in how she pushes back against Mark's arrogance. When he says, "How do you distinguish yourself?", he’s not really asking—he’s setting himself up to brag.

Her response about China and the SATs is a subtle jab, showing that she’s not buying into his self-importance. And when he clarifies, "I wasn’t talking about China anymore, I was talking about me," it’s peak Zuckerberg: dismissive, self-centered, and completely unaware that he’s making the conversation all about himself.

This whole scene perfectly sets up Mark’s character flaw—his need to be the smartest guy in the room and his inability to read social cues. It also hints at what’s coming: his obsession with status, exclusivity, and proving his worth, which will eventually lead to the creation of Facebook. It’s a masterclass in character-driven storytelling—not a word is wasted, and everything we need to know is packed into a few sharp exchanges.

The middle: conflict or tension.

This part of the scene keeps building tension as Erica subtly calls out Mark’s insecurities and he spirals into defensiveness. What starts as a casual question about exclusivity turns into a personal attack—at least in Mark’s mind.

When Erica asks which club is easiest to get into, Mark immediately gets defensive because he takes it as an insult. In his world, exclusivity = status, so the idea that he’d aim for the lowest bar hits a nerve.

Instead of laughing it off, he goes into full justification mode, throwing out Eduardo’s $300,000 success story as proof that money alone isn’t enough. But Erica doesn’t care—her “must be nice” line is pure sarcasm, making it clear she’s not impressed by Mark’s intellectual flexing.

Then he snaps. He doesn’t let the “easiest” question go, insisting that Erica asked it because she thinks he needs an easier way in. She tries to shut it down, saying it was just a question, but Mark can’t drop it—he needs to be right.

Then comes the gut punch. Erica calls him out completely, saying he has “finals clubs OCD” and needs medication. This isn’t just her being witty—it’s her finally naming the thing that’s making Mark unbearable. He thinks he’s motivated, but to her, it’s an obsession, and that’s the core of his problem.

End: Resolve the immediate conflict or add a hook to propel the story forward.

This is the breaking point of the scene—Mark pushes too far, and Erica drops the hammer. Erica has already broken up with Marc (which he doesn't get at first because he's so self-absorbed). But now reality has dawned on him, and they're about to split.

Mark can’t stop himself from being condescending, even when Erica tries to leave. His B.U. dig isn’t just a joke—it’s a last-ditch power move, trying to make her feel inferior because he feels rejected. But she sees right through it, and when she says, "I think we should just be friends," she’s not offering a truce—she’s shutting him down.

Mark, of course, refuses to accept that. "I don’t want friends." It’s blunt, desperate, and probably the most honest thing he’s said all night. He doesn’t want to be alone, but he also doesn’t know how to connect with people in a way that isn’t transactional or competitive.

Then comes Erica’s final blow. She softens her voice, takes his hand, and for a split second, it seems like she might let him off easy—but no. She completely destroys him, telling him straight-up that it won’t be his nerdiness that pushes people away—it’ll be his personality. And she means every word.

This is Mark’s villain origin story in real-time. The moment she leaves, the camera pushes in on him, because something inside him has just shifted—his ego is wounded, and he’s about to spend the rest of the movie trying to prove her wrong.

Scene Pacing and Emotional Beats

Scenes should rise and fall like waves, keeping the audience engaged.

• Tip 1: Try to alternate high-intensity moments with quieter beats (peaks and valleys).
• Tip 2: Focus on emotional shifts. Characters should enter the scene with one emotion and leave with another.

Let's see how Nolan achieves this in a few lines in The Dark Knight (2008) screenplay:

Peaks and Valleys:

This is a perfect example of how a scene rises and falls like waves, keeping us locked in.

Instead of a non-stop high-intensity sequence, it alternates between brutal action and eerie stillness, making every moment hit harder.

It starts at a peak—Batman is furious, slamming the Joker around, demanding answers.

The physical violence is intense, the dialogue clipped and explosive ("WHERE ARE THEY?!"). But then, there’s a valley—a brief pause where the Joker, despite being beaten and bleeding, just laughs. That shift from raw force to unsettling calm makes the Joker feel even more in control.

Then the next wave crashes—Batman punches him again, and the Joker leans into it, feeding off the chaos. He’s playing the long game, forcing Batman into a choice he doesn’t want to make.

And just when it seems like the Joker might withhold the information, he gives it up—but with a twist: both Rachel and Harvey are in danger, and Batman won't be able to save them both.

That final valley is where the real gut punch lands. The physical fight is over, but the psychological war is just beginning.

Batman may be stronger, but the Joker has all the power, and this moment feels even heavier because of the peaks and valleys that led up to it.

This push-and-pull rhythm is why this scene doesn’t just feel like mindless action—it’s an emotional rollercoaster.

If Batman was just constantly beating on the Joker, it wouldn’t be as tense or memorable. The pauses make the violence feel heavier, and the violence makes the pauses feel sharper.

That’s how you keep an audience completely locked in.

Emotional shift:

Also, there’s a major emotional shift in this scene.

It starts with Batman in control, fueled by rage, using brute force to get answers. But as the Joker laughs through the pain, the power dynamic flips.

Batman realizes that violence won’t work, and the Joker is actually enjoying the beating.

The final shift happens when the Joker reveals his trap—forcing Batman to choose between saving Rachel or Harvey. Batman, who started as the aggressor, ends the scene feeling helpless and outplayed.

Summing Up

Scene structure is the backbone of your screenplay. Master each scene's beginnings, middles, and ends, you create a compelling rhythm that keeps your audience on the edge of their seats and truly immersed in your story.

LESSON 14: PACING & SUSPENSE

Now, let's focus on pacing and suspense—two essential elements for keeping your screenplay engaging.

Pacing controls the rhythm of your story, while suspense keeps the audience invested in what’s coming next.

We’ll explore how to build tension and balance emotional highs and lows to create a captivating screenplay.

Pacing

Pacing is the speed at which your story unfolds. It’s about knowing when to slow down for reflection and when to speed up for action. Great pacing ensures your audience stays emotionally connected without feeling overwhelmed or bored.

Pacing in a screenplay is everything—it’s what keeps an audience hooked, engaged, and emotionally invested. It’s not just about making things move fast; it’s about controlling the rhythm of the story, knowing when to speed up for tension and when to slow down for impact.

Good pacing comes down to five key layers:

1. Concise Scene Descriptions – Keep visuals tight and efficient so the story flows smoothly.
2. Sharp Dialogue – Every line should serve a purpose, whether it’s driving the plot or revealing character.
3. Scene Length & Timing – Enter late, leave early. Trim the fat.
4. Story Structure – Well-placed plot points keep the momentum going and stop things from dragging.
5. Character Arcs – Growth has to feel natural, not rushed or stretched out.

Narrative pacing affects everything—mood, tension, suspense. If it’s too slow, people check out. If it’s too fast, they can’t process the stakes. Mastering pacing means knowing when to push the gas and when to hit the brakes—making sure every beat lands exactly when it should.

Tips for Manipulating Pacing

• Alternate Action and Dialogue: Follow intense action scenes with quieter, reflective moments.
• Short Sentences for Action: Use quick, sharp sentences to create a sense of urgency.
• Vary Scene Lengths: Shorter scenes keep momentum high, while longer scenes allow for deeper character development.
• Foreshadowing: Plant subtle hints of what’s to come to keep the audience intrigued.

Writing Suspense

Suspense is about keeping the audience wondering: What will happen next?

Tension and suspense in a screenplay are all about keeping the audience on edge—making them feel like something big, bad, or unexpected is always around the corner.

You set that up by establishing the threat early, ensuring we know what’s at stake and why the characters should be worried.

Whether it’s a killer shark, a bomb about to go off, or a secret that could destroy everything, there has to be something looming over the story that keeps the pressure on.

A ticking clock is one of the easiest ways to crank up the tension. When characters are racing against time, every second counts, and the audience feels that urgency.

It doesn’t have to be a literal countdown—it could be a deadline, a limited window to escape, or a slow-burning danger that’s creeping closer.

The key to real suspense is putting characters in constant peril and then escalating it.

Just when they think they’re safe, make things worse. Let them breathe for a second, then hit them with something even more intense. The best thrillers and horror films do this flawlessly—right when you think the danger is over, it twists into something even scarier.

Formatting also plays a huge role in how suspense is felt on the page. Short, punchy action lines make the reader feel the intensity, while spacing things out can build that eerie, slow-burn anticipation. The way the words hit the page should match the way tension builds on-screen.

At the end of the day, suspense isn’t about jump scares or random shocks—it’s about making the audience feel the weight of every moment. Keep them leaning forward, waiting for the other shoe to drop, and they’ll be hooked till the very last frame.

Tips for Building Suspense

• Raise the stakes: Give your characters something critical to lose.
• Use Dramatic Irony: Let the audience know something the characters don’t.
• The Ticking Clock: Add a deadline to heighten urgency.
• Layer Tension: Combine multiple sources of conflict within a scene.
• Extend time: Make the scene last longer than it would in real-time.
• Use one line as one shot: Don't try to be the cameraman or director. You don't have to write CLOSE UP. Your script should imply each shot. Leave it to the camera professionals to find the best camera angle and shot type.

Let's look at how Tarantino uses one line per shot to extend time in the famous scene from Pulp Fiction (1994) where Vincent administers an adrenaline shot to Mia:

As you can see, Tarantino doesn't write CLOSE UP ON NEEDLE or something like that. Instead, we can easily visualize each shot from the descriptions alone.

Also, time is drawn out in this already high-stakes situation. What would take a few seconds in real time is drawn out, so we're caught in the web of having to witness each little detail.

Summing Up

Pacing and suspense are the glue that holds your screenplay together. Balancing tension and release keeps your audience emotionally invested from start to finish.

LESSON 15: REWRITING TECHNIQUES

Writing a screenplay doesn’t end with the first draft. Rewriting is where the real magic happens. It’s your chance to refine, restructure, and elevate your work. In this lesson, we’ll explore the techniques professional screenwriters use to polish their scripts into something extraordinary.

The Purpose of Rewriting

Rewriting isn’t just fixing typos—it’s about:

1. Clarifying your story. 
2. Strengthening your characters and dialogue.
3. Enhancing pacing and emotional beats. 

Think of your first draft as raw material. The rewrite shapes it into its final form.

Step 1: Read and Evaluate

Before rewriting, read your entire script in one sitting. Take notes on:

• Story clarity: Does the plot make sense? 
• Character arcs: Do your characters grow or change? Read more on character arcs and character types.
• Pacing: Are there moments that drag or feel rushed?

Avoid making changes during this read. Focus on identifying areas that need work.

Step 2: Restructure the Story

Sometimes, major changes are needed. Don’t be afraid to:

• Cut Unnecessary Scenes
• Rearrange Scenes for Impact
• Tighten Act Breaks (ensure Act I, Act II, and Act III transitions are clear and compelling)

Consider rearranging the narrative—sometimes, a linear narrative can be rearranged into a non-linear one for a more interesting story structure. Read more on the various types of narrative structures.

Take Pulp Fiction (1994, Miramax) as an example. Below, I've rearranged the scenes into a linear story and compared them to the original non-linear one from the film. Which one do you think keeps our attention the most?

There appears to be an extra scene in the chronological order version, but that isn't the case. The prelude to "The Gold Watch" has to be split up, as the flashback takes place long before the present day, when the rest of the story unfolds.

Step 3: Enhance Characters and Dialogue

Strong characters and dialogue are key to a memorable script.

Deepen Character Motivations: Why do the do or say something? What do they want? What do they need?:

Eliminate On-the-Nose Dialogue:

Use Subtext:

Step 4: Refine Action and Pacing

Rewrites are a great time to fine-tune your action and pacing.

Make Action Visual. Consider if there are better ways to make action more dynamic.

Ask yourself: Do I need to change the setting, a prop, a vehicle type, or something else to make it more exciting?

Take a look at these two examples from Back to the Future (1985, Universal) and the different ways Marty travels in time.

The first is from an early draft from 1981, and the second is from the fourth draft.

First draft: Marty travels back to the future in an old refrigerator triggered by the energy of a nuclear test:

Fourth Draft: Marty travels back to the future in the DeLorean, triggered by the energy of a lightning strike:

In the first draft, Marty and Doc Brown use a nuclear explosion to trigger a "time chamber" made in an old refrigerator to get Marty back from 1952. We don't see a car (or "aero-mobile") until the final scene when Doc picks up Marty in the present.

Also, it's the federal agents who shoot the Doc in his laboratory, where he's built a time machine (a sort of reactor that strikes Marty with a white beam of light and transports him back in time), and not Libyan terrorists on a parking lot.

The rewrite transforms the time machine from a stationary, impractical refrigerator into the iconic, mobile DeLorean. The change adds dynamic action and visual appeal, and it's a much more seamless choice.

We don't get three different means of time transportation and don't have to travel to the Nevada test site. Instead, everything takes place around the same town square, which makes the story less messy and confusing.

Cut Redundant Action Lines: If an action line repeats what the dialogue or visuals already show, cut it.

Balance Pacing: Alternate between high-energy and quieter scenes to keep the audience interested.

Here are two examples - a high-speed scene and a quiet scene. A high-speed scene still needs breathing room, and a slow scene needs tension.

High-speed examples:

Quiet scene example:

Always ask yourself:

• Does my high-energy scene have a moment of relief afterward?
• Are my quiet moments adding tension, conflict, or suspense?
• Am I building momentum instead of just stacking action or silence?

Step 5: Test Your Script

Scripts are meant to be read aloud and seen on screen.

• Table Reads: Gather friends or peers to read your script out loud. You’ll hear what works and what doesn’t. 
• Feedback: Share your script with trusted readers and ask specific questions: 
  • Were the characters relatable? 
  • Did the story flow naturally? 
  • Were there any confusing moments? 
• Rewatch and Revise: Watch scenes from similar films to compare pacing, tone, and execution.

Rewriting is where your screenplay truly comes to life. Embrace the process, and don’t be afraid to make bold changes. Keep refining.

LESSON 16: PREPARE YOUR SCREENPLAY FOR SUBMISSION

Getting a screenplay ready for submission isn’t just about polishing the script. It’s about ensuring every element—the structure, the pacing, the submission package, and even the production company you send it to—is the best possible fit. A great script won’t go anywhere if submitted poorly or to the wrong people. Here’s what you must do to ensure your screenplay has the best chance of getting noticed.

Get Professional Feedback and Use Peer Reviews

No script is submission-ready without outside feedback.

Script coverage from a script supervisor who can provide an industry-level critique, flagging issues with plot coherence, dialogue authenticity, and character development. It’s a reality check that can highlight weak spots and make a script more marketable.

Peer reviews are just as valuable, especially with other screenwriters who know what to look for. Good peer feedback isn’t just about pointing out mistakes; it’s about sharpening the overall execution. Getting multiple rounds of notes and revising accordingly strengthens the script with every pass, ensuring that it's as strong as possible when it lands in front of a producer.

Take these notes, go back to rewriting, and make the necessary changes.

Then it's time to...

Personalize the Submission Package

A solid submission package includes a synopsis, a detailed treatment, and a character list, but it shouldn’t be a one-size-fits-all deal.

Production companies, agents, and contests have different expectations, and sending a generic package won’t cut it. Researching submission preferences is key, whether adjusting the synopsis length, refining the treatment format, or including a personalized cover letter.

The submission itself is part of the first impression. A sloppy presentation or a package that doesn’t match the recipient’s requirements makes rejection much more likely.

Find the Right Production Companies

Sending a screenplay to companies that aren’t a good fit is a waste of time!

Genre compatibility matters—horror scripts shouldn’t go to studios that only produce indie dramas.

Always research a company’s track record to gauge whether they’ve successfully worked on similar projects!

A studio’s cultural fit is just as important. Some companies focus on diverse storytelling, while others stick to specific themes or tones.

Send your screenplay to a company that aligns with the screenplay's values, audience, and creative approach. This improves the chances of a real opportunity.

ALWAYS Follow Guidelines and Meet Deadlines

Submission guidelines aren’t just technicalities; they’re a test of professionalism. If a screenplay doesn’t meet length requirements, uses the wrong format, or misses a deadline, it might get tossed before anyone even reads it.

Competitions and production companies deal with hundreds of submissions, and anything that doesn’t follow the rules makes their job easier—it gets rejected immediately. Professionalism means respecting these requirements and making sure everything is formatted, submitted, and sent on time.

Build Industry Connections

Let's face it. If your cousin is Brad Pitt or your uncle Christopher Nolan, you already stand better than the rest of us peasants. A great script is only part of the equation. Knowing the right people make all the difference. But even if you aren't born into a famous Hollywood family, you can still build connections.

Networking at film festivals, screenwriting workshops, and online communities builds relationships that might lead to opportunities down the line.

Social media is another tool for staying connected. Producers, agents, and industry insiders often share open calls or opportunities, and engaging with them can help keep a script on their radar.

Writers who treat networking as part of the job—not just something to do when looking for a deal—are the ones who eventually break in.
 

Summing Up

Preparing a screenplay for submission means making sure every piece is in place. The script must be structurally sound, refined through professional and peer feedback, and formatted correctly.

The submission package has to be tailored to the recipient, and research is key when choosing which production companies to approach.

Meeting guidelines and deadlines keep things professional, and networking ensures that the right people see the script.

With all these elements in place, a screenplay stands a real chance of getting noticed—and, hopefully, produced.